The Behistun Inscription is a relief with accompanying text carved 330 feet (100 meters) up a cliff in Kermanshah Province, Western Iran. The work tells the story of the victory of the Persian king Darius I (the Great, r. 522-486 BCE) over his rebellious satraps when he took the throne of the Achaemenid Empire (c. 550-330 BCE) in 522 BCE.

The relief is accompanied by text in three languages – Old Persian, Elamite, and Akkadian – relating Darius I’s autobiography, authority to rule by divine grace, and triumph over those who opposed his rise to power. It was commissioned at some point after he had suppressed the revolts (c. 520 BCE) though when it was completed is unknown.

The relief measures 82 feet (25 meters) long and 49 feet (15 meters) high, with the text written in columns above a scene in which Darius I, followed by two escorts, tramples on the body of the king he overthrew and faces a line of nine prisoners (the main satraps who had rebelled against him) bound and led by a rope. The figure of Darius I appears to be looking upward at the image of the Faravahar, a Persian symbol of divinity (depicting a royal male figure seated on a winged disc) which, in this case, represents the supreme god Ahura Mazda.

The relief is generally accepted as having been inspired by a much older, and very similar, relief in the same area (still extant), the Sar-e Pol-e Zahab Relief (also known as the Sarpol-i Zohab Relief and Anubanini Rock Relief), which depicts King Anubanini of the Kingdom of Lullubi (r. c. 2300 BCE) in similar pose, defeating his enemies, and giving thanks to his gods, especially the goddess of war, Ishtar.

The relief was first noted by Europeans in the 18th century CE and was famously copied by the scholar Sir Henry C. Rawlinson (l. 1810-1895 CE) in 1835 and 1843 CE. Rawlinson’s copy of the three cuneiform texts enabled him, and other notable scholars of the time, to decipher them since, once Old Persian cuneiform was understood, the cuneiform of the Elamites and Akkadians could be as well. The Behistun Inscription thus became the means whereby scholars could translate Near Eastern languages. The relief can still be seen today and was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2006 CE.

Rise of Darius the Great

Cyrus II (the Great, r. c. 550-530 BCE) founded the Achaemenid Empire and, upon his death, was succeeded by his son Cambyses II (r. 530-522 BCE). Cambyses II embarked on a campaign to conquer Egypt and, while he was there, someone else (allegedly his brother Bardiya, also known as Smerdis) usurped the throne and proclaimed himself king. The usurper was not actually Bardiya, however, because Cambyses had murdered Bardiya before leaving for Egypt in order to prevent this very situation. The new king was actually a Bardiya look-alike named Gaumata (r. 522 BCE), one of the magi (priestly class) of the court.

Cambyses II was returning from Egypt to deal with the problem when he died – allegedly of a self-inflicted wound – and Darius I, a distant cousin who was among Cambyses II’s entourage, took it upon himself – with the aid of co-conspirators – to ᴀssᴀssinate the usurper and proclaim himself king. As a relative of the late Cambyses II, Darius claimed legitimacy because the usurper was not a member of the royal family. His legitimacy was proven by his victory over his enemies, demonstrating that the supreme god Ahura Mazda was on his side and approved of his actions.

This account comes from Darius I himself in the Behistun Inscription, but the truth of it has been challenged by a number of modern-day scholars. It has been suggested that the so-called “usurper” was, in fact, Cambyses II’s younger brother Bardiya/Smerdis who either took the throne in his brother’s absence without permission or was placed in charge by him and then overstepped his authority. The satraps (provincial governors) of the empire seem to have accepted Bardiya’s reign as legitimate while, when Darius I returned and ᴀssᴀssinated him, at least 19 provinces rose in revolt. The story of Cambyses II killing his brother before leaving for Egypt only comes from Darius I, and he would have had to make such a claim in order to establish legitimacy: he had not, he claims, killed the rightful king but an imposter and usurper.