Although the Romans did not invent footwear, they were the first society in the ancient world to develop a diverse and specialized range of shoes suited to different functions and environments. While earlier civilizations such as the Egyptians and Greeks relied primarily on basic, flat sandals ideal for warm climates, the Romans needed something more sophisticated. The temperate yet varied geography of the Italian Peninsula, combined with the ever-expanding boundaries of the Roman Empire, required more durable and functional solutions to protect the feet of its citizens and soldiers.
This necessity drove innovation. From open-toed sandals worn by civilians to the rugged caligae donned by soldiers, Roman footwear evolved into a highly effective and strategically significant part of daily life—and military success. The health of the Roman foot, combined with an advanced network of roads, helped the Roman legions travel farther, faster, and in better condition than their enemies. In many ways, the humble sandal helped the empire march across continents.
While both Roman civilians and soldiers wore sandals, the design and craftsmanship varied according to use. Civilian sandals, worn across all social classes, generally shared the same basic form. However, artisans often incorporated stylistic flourishes or adjustments for comfort and function, especially for those of higher status. Romans wore two main types of sandals: open sandals similar to today’s flip-flops, and enclosed sandals which offered more coverage while still allowing the feet to breathe.
The most iconic Roman footwear, however, was the caligae—the heavy-soled military sandals worn by legionaries. These were not ordinary sandals; they were carefully engineered for durability, comfort, and battlefield practicality. Constructed with three layers of thick leather bound by iron hobnails, caligae offered superior traction on rough terrain while protecting against blisters and foot injuries. The outer sole was rugged for durability, while the inner layer remained soft for comfort during long marches. These features helped prevent debilitating conditions like trench foot, a crucial advantage for troops on the move.
Another remarkable Roman innovation was their recognition of foot anatomy. Unlike earlier civilizations, the Romans created distinct left and right shoes, improving both comfort and performance. This attention to detail extended to the production process. Shoemakers, known as sutores, were highly respected craftsmen whose skills were indispensable not just in cities, but also in the military. Roman armies often traveled with sutores who could quickly produce or repair footwear on the move, keeping soldiers agile and well-equipped.
The sutores used a wooden mold called a forma to shape the shoes and an iron block to turn and flatten the nails that were embedded into the soles. These nails served not only to bind the leather layers together but also to create hobnailed soles with metal spikes. In civilian life, these provided grip on slippery streets; in the military, they played a dual role—offering better traction across mountainous terrain and serving as weapons during close combat. When Roman soldiers advanced in formation, these hobnailed sandals could be used to crush fallen enemies underfoot, ensuring they could not rise to fight again. The distinct clatter of thousands of studded sandals approaching in unison also struck fear into opposing forces—an early form of psychological warfare.
Archaeological evidence supports the durability and standardization of Roman footwear. In the ruins of Hippos-Sussita near the Sea of Galilee, researchers discovered exceptionally preserved footprints made by caligae, dating back to the 1st century AD. Remarkably, the same design and measurements were found in footprints at a separate Roman site in Britain. This consistency across the empire highlights the precision of Roman craftsmanship and the enduring skill of their sutores.
The Roman approach to footwear reflects more than practicality—it embodies the empire’s core values: order, adaptability, and military discipline. From bustling urban centers to remote battlefields, Roman shoes supported the daily life and military campaigns that helped build and maintain one of history’s most powerful empires. In the end, it could be said that the Roman Empire marched on leather-bound feet—one step at a time.
