The study of ancient DNA from Egyptian mummies, such as the work by Schuenemann et al. (2017), has provided valuable insights into the genetic history of Egyptians during the period from approximately 1388 BCE to 426 CE. However, this data only reflects a late phase of Egyptian history, by which time the civilization had already undergone millennia of development and external cultural influences. To truly understand the origins and formation of ancient Egypt, we must look further back to its earliest foundational periods—the Predynastic era (c. 5000–3100 BCE), the Old Kingdom (c. 2686–2181 BCE), and the Middle Kingdom (c. 2055–1650 BCE).

The Missing Eras: The Foundations of Egypt

While the mummies studied belong to the New Kingdom and later periods, it was the preceding centuries that shaped Egypt’s core idenтιтy:

• The Predynastic Period: This was the era of early agricultural communities along the Nile, the development of art, religious beliefs, and the precursors to hieroglyphic writing.
• The Old Kingdom: The age of the great pyramids, the rise of the concept of “divine kingship,” and the establishment of a centralized administrative state.
• The Middle Kingdom: A cultural renaissance, territorial expansion, and the refinement of religious doctrines.

These elements not only defined the essence of Egyptian civilization but also deeply influenced later cultures. However, due to the scarcity of well-preserved remains from these early periods, existing ancient DNA data cannot answer key questions about the population composition, genetic makeup, or early cultural interactions of these formative eras.

The Risk of Misinterpretation

Relying solely on genetic data from later mummies carries the danger of oversimplifying Egyptian history by:

• Overlooking early diversity: Predynastic Egypt may have been a multi-ethnic society, but after millennia of unification and external contact, its genetic profile shifted.
• Underestimating indigenous evolution: Many cultural hallmarks (such as religious ideology and architecture) emerged before extensive foreign contact.
• Overemphasizing foreign influence: DNA from the Greco-Roman period may reflect later admixture but does not explain the civilization’s indigenous roots.

Conclusion: The Need for a Holistic Approach

Ancient DNA is a powerful tool, but it is only one piece of the historical puzzle. To accurately trace Egypt’s origins, researchers must combine archaeology, linguistics, and—if possible—genetic analysis of older remains. Only then can we answer the fundamental question: How did Egypt become a great civilization? from its very beginnings, rather than from the later chapters of its history.